Describe the ways in which the novel in India attempted to create a sense of pan-Indian belonging.

The ways in which the novel in India attempted to create a

sense of pan-Indian belonging were:

→ Many historical novels were about Marathas and the Rajputs

which produced a sense of a pan—Indian belonging in Bengal.

They imagined the nation to be full of adventure, heroism,

romance and sacrifice. The novel allowed the colonized to give a

shape to their desires.

→ Bankim’s Anandmath is a novel about a secret Hindu militia

that fight Muslims to establish a Hindu kingdom. It was a novel

that inspired many kinds of freedom fighters.

→ Shivaji, the hero of the novel Anguriya Binimoy (1857) written

by Budhadeb Mukhopadhyaya’s (1827-94) engages in many

battles against clever and treacherous Aurangzeb, what gives

him courage and grit is his belief that he is a nationalist fighting

for the freedom of Hindus.

→ Imagining a heroic past was one way in which the novel

helped in popularising the sense of belonging to a common

nation. It was another way to include various classes in the novel

so that they could be seen as belonging to a shared world.

Premchand’s novels, for instance, are filled with all kinds of

powerful characters drawn from all levels of society.

Describe how the issue of caste was included in novels in India. By referring to any two novels, discuss the ways in which they tried to make readers think about existing social issues.

Indians used the novel as a powerful medium to criticize what

they considered defects in their society and to suggest

remedies. The issue of caste was included in Indian novels for

this same purpose. Novels like Indirabai and Indulekha were

written by members of the uppercastes with upper-caste

characters.

→ Potheri Kunjambu, a lower-caste writer from north Kerala,

wrote a novel called Saraswativijayam in 1892. It was a direct

attack on caste oppression. The novel’s hero, an ‘untouchable’

leaves his village to escape from cruelty of a Brahmin overlord.

He converts to Christianity, receives modern education and

returns to his village a judge of a local court. In the meantime,

the villagers bring the landlord to his court, they believe the

landlord’s men had killed the hero. The judge reveals himself

and the Nambuthri landlord repents and promises to reform.

The novel emphasizes the role of education in uplifting the

lower classes.

→ In 1920, a Bengali novel Titash Ekti Nadir Naam (1956)

written by Advaita Malla Burman takes up the cause of ‘low

castes’. The people described are the Mallas - community

of fishermen. The story covers three generations and describes

the oppression of the upper castes. The lives of the Mallas is tied

with river Titash. As the river dries, the community dies too. This

novel is special because the author himself a ‘low caste’

describing the anguish of low-caste people.

In what ways was the novel in colonial India useful for both the colonisers as well as the nationalists?

The novel in colonial India was useful for both the colonisezs as

well as the nationalists on account of a variety of reasons.

Colonial rulers found "vernacular" novels illuminating for the

information they provided on native customs and life. It was

useful in the governance of this diverse country. Indian

nationalists used the form of the novel to criticize colonial rule

and instill a sense of national pride and unity amongst the

people.

Summarise the concern in both nineteenth-century Europe and India about women reading novels. What does this suggest about how women were viewed?

The concern in both nineteenth-century Europe and

India about women reading novels bore more or less similar

fears. Women were seen as easily corruptible and an imaginary

world that the novel provided was seen as a dangerous opening

for the imaginations of its readers. In certain Indian

communities, it was felt that women who read novels would

leave their domestic environments and aspire to be part of the

outside world- the male domain.

This suggests that women were viewed as delicate and

incapable of being independent. They were merely expected to

marry a man who could take care of their financial needs while

they maintained his household and remained subservient to

him.

Discuss some of the social changes in nineteenth-century Britain which Thomas Hardy and Charles Dickens wrote about.

Social changes in 19th century Britain highlighted by Thomas

Hardy:

→ The breaking up of rural communities because of

industrialization. Due to industrialization, peasants who toiled

with their lands were disappearing as large or big farmers

enclosed lands, bought machines and employed labourers to

produce for the market.

→ In his novel ‘Mayor of Casterbridge’, Hardy mourns the loss of

the more personalized world which is being replaced by a more

efficiently managed urban culture.

Social Changes Highlighted by Charles Dickens:

(1) Charles Dickens wrote mainly about the emergence of the

industrial age and it’s effects on society and the common

people.

(2) Growth of factories and expanded cities led to the growth of

business and economy and increased the profits of capitalists.

(3) At the same time workers faced immense problems. Use of

machines resulted in unemployment of ordinary labour; they

became homeless, creating a problem of housing. Pursuit of

profit became the goal of factory owners while the workers

were undervalued and almost lost their identity Human beings

were reduced to being mere instruments of production.

Write a note on: (a) The Oriya novel (b) Jane Austen's portrayal of women (c) The picture of the new middle class which the novel Pariksha-Guru portrays.

(a) In 1877-78, Ramashankar Ray started to serialize the first

Oriya novel, "Saudamini"; but it remained incomplete. Orissa's

first major novelist was Fakir Mohon Senapati. He wrote "Chaa

Mana Atha Guntha" that deals with land and its possession. This

novel illustrated that rural issues could be an important part of 

urban concerns.

(b) The novels of Jane Austen give us a glimpse of the world of

women in genteel rural society in mid-nineteenth century Britain.

Women, at that time, were encouraged to look for a good

marriage and find a wealthy and propertied husband. Her

famous novel 'Pride and Prejudice' depicts this well. It writes 'it

is the truth, universally acknowledged, that a single man in

possession of good fortune must be in want of a good wife'. The

main characters are shown to be pre-occupied with marriage

and money.

(c) The novel "Pariksha-Guru" portrays the difficulties of the new

middle class in adapting to colonized society while preserving its

cultural identity. It emphasizes that Western ideals must be

inculcated, but without sacrificing the traditional values of

middle-class households. The characters in this Hindi novel by

Srinivas Das are seen endeavouring to bridge the two different

worlds of modern education and traditional ethics.

Outline the changes in technology and society which led to an increase in readers of the novel in eighteenth-century Europe.

→ Print made novels to be read widely and become popular

quickly.

→ Novels produced a number of common interests and a

variety of readers.

→ Readers were drawn into the story and identified themselves

with the lives of fictitious characters. They now could think

about issues like love and marriage, proper conduct for men and

women.

→ Prosperity, due to industrialization, made new groups join the 

readership for novels. Besides the aristocratic and gentlemanly

classes, new groups of lower-middle-class people such as

shopkeepers and clerks joined in.

→ The rise in the earnings of authors freed them the from the

patronage of aristocrats. They could now experiment with

different literary styles. Epistolary novel – Samuel Richardson’s

Pamela – written in the 18th century was the first of its kind. It

was a story told through letters.

→ Books became cheap and even the poor could buy them.

Circulating libraries made books easily accessible. Publishers also

started hiring out novels. Books could now be read in private or

could be heard by more people, while one of them read it out.

→ Magazines serialised stories (Charles Dickens’ Pickwick

Papers was the first), illustrated them and sold them cheap.

All these changes increased the number of readers.

Explain the following: (a) Social changes in Britain which led to an increase in women readers (b) What actions of Robinson Crusoe make us see him as a typical colonizer. (c) After 1740, the readership of novels began to include poorer people. (d) Novelists in colonial India wrote for a political cause.

(a) As the middle classes became more affluent, women got

more leisure time to read and write novels. Also, novels began

to explore the world of women, their emotions, identities,

experiences and problems. Domestic life became an essential

subject of novels- a field women had an authority to speak

about.

(b) Robinson Crusoe's actions that make us see him as a typical

colonizer are many. Shipwrecked on an island inhabited by

coloured people, Crusoe treats them as inferior beings. He is

portrayed as "rescuing" a native and then making him a slave.

He gives him the name Friday, without even caring to ask for his

name. Colonized people were seen as barbaric and primitive,

and colonialism became their self-professed civilizer. Crusoe was

a direct representation of this ideology of colonizers.

(c) After 1740, the readership of novels began to include poorer 

people because of the introduction of circulating libraries, low priced books, and also because of the system of hiring out of

books by the hour. This made books easily available to the poor

people, who could not afford books earlier due to high costs and

absence of lending libraries.

(d) Novelists in colonial India wrote for a political cause because

the novel was a powerful medium for expressing social defects

and suggesting remedies for the same. It also helped establish a

relationship with the past. Since people from all walks of life

could read novels, it was an easy way to popularize anti-colonial

ideas. It also helped bring about a sense of national unity among

the people.

Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.

The print culture immensely helped the growth in the growth of

nationalism in India in the following ways :

→ Through vernacular press, oppressive methods of colonial

rule were reported.

→ The misrule of government and its initiative on curbing the

freedom of press spread the nationalist ideas that demanded

freedom of press.

→ Nationalist feelings and revolutionary ideas were secretly

spread by the dailies like - The Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Indian

Mirror, Kesri, The Hindu, Bombay Samachar etc. Through these

newspapers national leaders always tried to mobilize public

opinion of Indian masses and unite them for the cause of

nationalism.

→ The print culture helped in educating the people who then

started to be gradually influenced by the reformist and

nationalist ideas of the various Indian leaders like Raja Ram

Mohun Roy, Tilak, Subhas Bose and Gandhiji etc. 

What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India?

The effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in

nineteenth century India were:

→ The poor people benefited from the spread of print culture in

India on account of the availability of low-price books and public

libraries.

→ Enlightening essays were written against caste discrimination

and its inherent injustices. These were read by people across the

country.

→ On the encouragement and support of social reformers,

over-worked factory workers set up libraries for self-education,

and some of them even published their own works, for example,

Kashibaba and his "Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal".

Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India.

Some people especially from upper class and powerful class

feared the effect of easily available printed books. Their cause of

fear was that due to the spread of literacy among the common

people they may loose their position or authorities. Some

people feared that this may lead to the spread of rebellions and

irreligious thoughts. For example -

→ In Europe, the Roman Catholic Church tried to curb the

printed books through the Index of Prohibited Books.

→ In India, the Vernacular Press Act imposed restrictions on

Indian press and various local newspapers. Also, some religious

leaders and some people from upper castes expressed their

fear.

Why did some people in 18th century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism?

Many people in the 18th century Europe thought that the print

culture has the power in it to bring enlightenment and end

despotism. This would help in spreading of literacy and

knowledge among all class of people. Social reformers like

Louise, Sebastian Mercier, and Martin Luther felt that the print

culture is the most powerful engine of progress and public

opinion and hence, it would definitely bring enlightenment and

an end to despotism.

What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to: (a) Women (b) The poor (c) Reformers.

(a) The spread of print culture in 19th century India benefited

Indian women through learning and education. The liberal

families supported the education of women to study or read as

they believed education and reading would make the women

corrupt. This led to the counter reaction, as most of the

oppressed women began to study and read books and learnt 

writing in secrecy. Some literate women started to write books

and their autobiographies. Rashasundari Devi, a young married

girl wrote her autobiography “Amar Jiban” which was published

in 1876. Overall, the print culture in 19th century India helped in

spread of the feeling of self-reliance among Indian women.

(b) The poor people benefitted from the spread of print culture

because of the availability of books at a low price. The

readership among them increased due to the publication of low

priced books. Public libraries were also set up from the early

19th century, expanding the access to the books where all

people could gain knowledge. Encouraged and inspired by the

social reformers, the people like factory workers too set up their

libraries and some even wrote books. Kashibaba, a Kanpur mill

worker wrote and published ‘Chote aur Bade Ka Sawal’.

(c) Indian reforms of 19th century utilized print culture as the

most potent means of spreading their reformist ideas and

highlight the unethical issues. They began publishing various

vernacular and English and Hindi newspapers and books through

which they could spread their opinions against widow

immolation, child marriage, monotheism, Brahmanical

priesthood and idolatry to the common people of the country.

In this way the spread of print culture in the 19th century

provided them a space for attacking religious orthodoxy and to

spread modern social and political ideas to the people of

different languages across the country.

Write short notes to show what you know about: (a) The Gutenberg Press (b) Erasmus's idea of the printed book (c) The Vernacular Press Act.

(a) The Gutenberg Press: The first printing press was developed

by Johan Gutenberg in 1430s. It was a developed form of the

olive and wine presses. By 1448 Gutenberg perfected this

system. The lead moulds were used for casting the metal types 

for the letters of alphabet. The first book he printed was Bible.

He produced 180 copies of Bible in 3 years, which was much

faster by standards of the time, at the time.

(b) Erasmus’s idea of printed book: Erasmus was the Latin

scholar and a Catholic reformer. He criticized the printing of

books. He thought that most of the books are stupid, ignorant,

scandalous, raving, irreligious and seditious. According to him

such books devaluate the valuable books.

(c) The Vernacular Press Act: Modelled on the Irish Press Laws, it

was passed in 1878. This law gave the government tyrannical

rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. If

a seditious report was published and the newspaper did not

heed to an initial warning, then the press was seized and the

printing machinery confiscated. This was a complete violation of

the freedom of expression.

Give reasons for the following: (a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295. (b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it. (c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century. (d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.

(a)Woodblock print was invented around the sixth century in

China. It came to Europe, along with Marco Polo, in 1295. Marco

Polo returned to Italy after many years of exploration in China,

and he brought the knowledge of woodblock print with him on

his return.

(b) Through the publications of his protestant ideas, Martin

Luther challenged the orthodox practices and rituals of the

Roman Catholic Church. He wrote 95 theses criticizing many of

the practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther’s writings

were immediately reproduced in vast numbers and read widely.

This led to a division within the church and to the beginning of

the Protestant Reformation. He also translated the New

Testament of which 5000 copies were sold within a few days. 

These were impossible without the printing technology. Deeply

grateful to the print, Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of

God and the greatest one.”

This is the reason why Luther was in favour of print and spoke

out in praise of it.

(c) The Roman Catholic Church had to face many dissents from

mid-16th century onwards. People had written many books that

interpreted the God and the creation in their own ways or as

they liked. Therefore, the church banned such books and kept

the record of such banned books. It was called the Index of

Prohibited Books.

(d) Gandhi considered that the liberty of speech, liberty of press

and freedom of association were three most powerful vehicles

of expressing and cultivating public opinion. Therefore, he said

the fight for Swaraj was a fight for liberty of speech, press, and

freedom for association.

To what extent does government regulation and new laws solve problems of pollution? Discuss one example each of the success and failure of legislation to change the quality of (a) public life (b) private life

Government laws play an important role in controlling the rates

of pollution in a city. However, simply passing laws is not

enough. They need to be properly enforced as well. It is also a

fact that people tend to find ways of getting around laws. So,

apart from legislations, government also needs to carry out

intensive public awareness programmes aimed at educating the

public about the need and ways of controlling pollution; and

about how they too have a stake in environmental governance.

Public Life:

• Failure: The Underground railway enhanced transport, but

caused the demolition of many houses, rendering their

inhabitants homeless.

• Success: The British state used public funds to provide for

entertainment forms such as museums, art galleries and

libraries for the working classes.

Private Life:

• Failure: The availability of one-room tenements and no

housing facilities for a major part of the industrial revolution

time period caused the family to get divided into smaller units.

There were even cases where rural people had to leave their

families behind and live alone in the urban areas where they

worked.

• Success: British administrative officials built houses in new

suburbs for fulfilling the housing needs of the working classes.

Explain what is meant by the Haussmanisation of Paris. To what extent would you support or oppose this form of development? Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, to either support or oppose this, giving reasons for your view.

Haussmanisation of Paris refers to the forcible reconstruction of

cities to enhance their beauty and impose order. The poor were

evicted from the centre of Paris to reduce the possibility

of political rebellion and to beautify the city.

Explain the social changes in London which led to the need for the Underground railway. Why was the development of the Underground criticized?

The development of suburbs as a part of the drive to decongest

London led to the extension of the city beyond the range where

people could walk to work. Though these suburbs had been

built, the people could not be persuaded to leave the city and

stay far away from their places of work in the absence of some

form of public transport. The Underground railway was constructed 

to solve this housing problem. It was criticized initially because:

→ A newspaper reported the danger to health and asphyxiation

(lack of air) and heat.

→ It was referred to as iron monsters, which added to the mess

of the city. Charles Dickens in ‘Dombey and Son’ described its

destructive process in construction.

→ About 900 houses were destroyed to make two miles of

railways.

What forms of entertainment came up in nineteenth century England to provide leisure activities for the people.

There were many forms of entertainment came up in nineteenth century England:

→ For the upper classes, an annual "London Season" comprised

of opera, the theatre and classical music events was one of the

sources of leisure.

→ For the working classes, pubs, discussions and meetings for

political action served the same purpose.

→ Libraries, art galleries and museums were new types of

entertainment brought about through the utilization of state

money.

→ Music halls and cinema theatres too became immensely

popular with the lower classes.

→ Industrial workers were encouraged to undertake seaside

vacations to rejuvenate from the banes of working in the

polluting environment of factories.

Give explanations for the following: (a) Why well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the nineteenth century. (b) Why a number of Bombay films were about the lives of migrants. (c) What led to the major expansion of Bombay's population in the mid-nineteenth century.

(a) Well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for

the poor in the nineteenth century on account of three reasons:

→ one-room houses of the poor came to be seen as the

breeding ground of diseases, and hence, a threat to public

health.

→ Fire hazards became a worry in these over-crowded, badly

ventilated, unhygienic homes.

→ There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially

after the 1917 Russian Revolution. Housing schemes were

undertaken to avoid a rebellion by the poor.

(b) Bombay became an attractive destination for people seeking

jobs after the British administration replaced Surat with Bombay

as its principal western port. The consequent increase in trade

and industries led to a great influx of people. Thus, migrants

were (and still are) an important facet of Bombay. Most of the

people in the film industry were migrants themselves, and

wanted to portray the plight of this class of people through

films. Thus, a number of Bombay films were about the lives of

migrants.

(c) In mid-seventeenth century, Bombay became East India

Company's principal western port, replacing Surat. Later, by the

end of the nineteenth century, it had become an important

administrative as well as industrial centre. All through these

years, the prospects for trade and commerce, and employment

kept increasing, thereby making Bombay an attractive

destination for migrants.

How does the existence of a large urban population affect each of the following? Illustrate with historical examples. (a) A private landlord (b) A Police Superintendent in charge of law and order (c) A leader of a political party.

(a) A private landlord benefits by increasing the rent and he has

more control over the price. The rising population would lead to

increasing demand for space, e.g. renting of buildings at high

rates were common in London and Bombay.

(b) Anyone involved with law and order would find it difficult

with increasing population in urban areas. He would have to

work hard to maintain law and order as crime rates are usually

high in cities. For example, London people employed policemen

to curb the rising crimes during night.

(c) Political leaders would have more people voting and hence

more responsibilities. In cities, masses of people could be drawn

to the political causes as it happened in the Bloody Sunday of

November, 1887 in London. The metropolitan character of cities 

would compel him/her to be more secular and liberal on the one

hand. On the other hand, extremism or conservatism might also

win them votes as a reactionary phenomenon, e.g. rise of Nazis

in Germany or Liberal Democrats in France.

What were the changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the nineteenth and the twentieth century? Explain the factors which led to this change.

Changes in the kind of work available to women in London

between the nineteenth and the twentieth century were

primarily based on industrial and technological advancements. 

Consequently, women had to work in households for a living,

and this led to an increase in the number of domestic servants.

Some women also began to earn by lodging out rooms, tailoring,

washing or making matchboxes. With the coming of the First

World War though, women once again joined the industrial

sector.

Give two reasons why the population of London expanded from the middle of the eighteenth century

→ The city of London was a magnet for the migrant populations

due to the job opportunities provided by its dockyards and

industries. By 1750, one out of every nine people of England and

Wales lived in London. So, the population of London kept

expanding through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

→ During the first world war, London began manufacturing

motor cars and electrical goods. This increased the number of

large factories, which in turn increased the number of people

coming to the city in search of work.

Why did industrial production in India increase during the First World War?

India witnessed increased industrial production during the First

World War due to following reasons:

→ British industries became busy in producing and supplying

war-needs. Hence, they stopped exporting British goods or

clothes for colonial markets like that in India.

→ It was a good opportunity for Indian industries to fill in empty

Indian markets with their products. It was done so. Therefore,

industrial production in India increased.

→ Also the British colonial government asked Indian factories to 

supply the war needs like - jute bags, cloth or army uniforms,

tents and leather boots, horse and mule saddle, etc.

→ The increased demands of variety of products led to the

setting up of new factories and old ones increased their

production.

→ Many new workers were employed and everyone was made

to work longer hours.

Imagine that you have been asked to write an article for an encyclopaedia on Britain and the history of cotton. Write your piece using information from the entire chapter.

Britain and the History of Cotton

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants

would trade with rural people in textile production. A clothier

would buy wool from a wool stapler, carry it to the spinners, and

then, take the yarn to the weavers, fuller and dyers for further

levels of production. London was the finishing centre for these

goods. This phase in British manufacturing history is known as

proto-industrialisation. In this phase, factories were not an

essential part of industry. What was present instead was a

network of commercial exchanges.

The first symbol of the new era of factories was cotton. Its

production increased rapidly in the late nineteenth century.

Imports of raw cotton sky-rocketed from 2.5 million pounds in

1760 to 22 million pounds in 1787. This happened because of

the invention of the cotton mill and new machines, and better

management under one roof. Till 1840, cotton was the leading

sector in the first stage of industrialisation.

Most inventions in the textile production sector were met with

disregard and hatred by the workers because machines implied

less hand labour and lower employment needs. The Spinning

Jenny was one such invention. Women in the woollen industry

opposed and sought to destroy it because it was taking over

their place in the labour market.

Before such technological advancements, Britain imported silk 

and cotton goods from India in vast numbers. Fine textiles from

India were in high demand in England. When the East India

Company attained political power, they exploited the weavers

and textile industry in India to its full potential, often by force,

for the benefit of Britain. Later, Manchester became the hub of

cotton production. Subsequently, India was turned into the

major buyer of British cotton goods.

During the First World War, British factories were too busy

providing for war needs. Hence, demand for Indian textiles rose

once again. The history of cotton in Britain is replete with such

fluctuations of demand and supply.

How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian weavers?

The English East India Company used different means to procure

silk and cotton from the weavers:

→ Appointment of paid supervisors called Gomasthas. They also

collected supplies and examined cloth quality of the weavers.

→ Prevention of Company weavers from dealing with other

buyers through a system of advances and loans.

Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?

Some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand

labour over machines because:

→ Machines were costly, ineffective, difficult to repair, and

needed huge capital investments.

→ Labour was available at low wages at that period of time.

→ In seasonal industries only seasonal labour was required.

→ Market demands of variety of designs and colour and specific

type could not be fulfilled by machine made clothes. Intricate

designs and colours could be done by human-skills only.

→ In Victorian age, the aristocrats and other upper class people

preferred articles made by hand only. 

Write True or False against each statement: (a) At the end of the nineteenth century, 80 per cent of the total workforce in Europe was employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.(b) The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the eighteenth century.(c) The American Civil War resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.(d) The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to improve their productivity.

(a) False

(b) True

(c) False

(d) True

Proto-industrialisation is the phase of industrialisation that was

not based on the factory system. Before the coming of factories,

there was large-scale industrial production for an international

market. This part of industrial history is known as proto-industrialisation.

Explain the following: (a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny. (b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villages. (c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century. (d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.

(a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny

because it speeded up the spinning process, and consequently,

reduced labour demand. This caused a valid fear of

unemployment among women working in the woollen industry.

Till date, they had survived on hand spinning, but this was

placed in peril by the new machine.

(b) The trade and commerce guild controlled the market, raw

materials, employees, and also production of goods in the

towns. This created problems for merchants who wanted to

increase production by employing more men. Therefore, they

turned to peasants and artisans who lived in villages.

(c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth

century on account of the growing power of European

companies in trade with India. They secured many concessions

from local courts as well as the monopoly rights to trade. This

led to a decline of the old ports of Surat and Hoogly from where

local merchants had operated. Exports slowed and local banks

here went bankrupt.

(d) The English East India Company appointed Gomasthas for:

→ To eliminate the existence of traders and brokers and

establish a direct control over the weavers.

→ To eliminate weavers from dealing with other buyers by

means of advances and control. In this manner, weavers who

took loans and fees in advance were obligated to the British.

Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?

G-77 countries is an abbreviation for the group of 77 countries

that demanded a new international economic order (NIEO); a

system that would give them real control over their natural

resources, without being victims of neo-colonialism, that is, a

new form of colonialism in trade practised by the former

colonial powers.

The G-77 can be seen as a reaction to the activities of the

Bretton Woods twins (the International Monetary Fund and the

World Bank) because these two institutions were designed to

meet the financial needs of industrial and developed countries,

and did nothing for the economic growth of former colonies and

developing nations.

Explain the causes of the Great Depression.

The Great Depression was a result of many factors:

→ Prosperity in the USA during the 1920s created a cycle of

higher employment and incomes. It led to rise in consumption

and demands. More investment and more employment created

tendencies of speculations which led to the Great Depression of

1929 upto the mid-1930s.

→ Stock market crashed in 1929. It created panic among

investors and depositors who stopped investing and depositing.

As a result, it created a cycle of depreciation.

→ Failure of the banks. Some of the banks closed down when

people withdrew all their assets, leaving them unable to invest.

Some banks called back loans taken from them at the same

dollar rate inspite of the falling value of dollar. It was worsened

by British change in policy to value pound at the pre-war value.

Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.

The three types of movements or flows within the international

economic exchange are trade flows, human capital flows and

capital flows or investments. These can be explained as—the

trade in agricultural products, migration of labour, and financial

loans to and from other nations. India was a hub of trade in the pre-modern 

world, and it exported textiles and spices in return for gold and silver from

Europe. Many different foods such as potatoes, soya,

groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies and sweet potatoes came

to India from the Americas after Columbus discovered it.

In the field of labour, indentured labour was provided for mines,

plantations and factories abroad, in huge numbers, in the

nineteenth century. This was an instrument of colonial

domination by the British.

Lastly, Britain took generous loans from USA to finance the

World War. Since India was an English colony, the impact of

these loan debts was felt in India too. The British government

increased taxes, interest rates, and lowered the prices of

products it bought from the colony. Indirectly, but strongly, this

affected the Indian economy and people.

What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?

The Bretton Woods Agreement was finalised in July 1944 at

Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. It established the

International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to preserve

global economic stability and full employment in the industrial

world. These institutions also dealt with external surpluses and

deficits of member nations, and financed post-war

reconstructions

Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.

Two examples from history to show the impact of

technology on food availability were:

→ Faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped

transport food more cheaply and quickly from production units

to even faraway markets.

→ Refrigerated ships helped transport perishable foods such as

meat, butter and eggs over long distances.

Write a note to explain the effects of the following: (a) The British government's decision to abolish the Corn Laws. (b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa. (c) The death of men of workingage in Europe because of the World War. (d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy. (e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.

(a) The British government's decision to abolish the Corn Laws

was the inflow of cheaper agricultural crops from America and

Australia. Many English farmers left their profession and

migrated to towns and cities. Some went overseas. This

indirectly led to global agriculture and rapid urbanisation, a

prerequisite of industrial growth.

(b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa caused a loss of livelihood

for countless Africans. Using this situation to their advantage,

colonising nations conquered and subdued Africa by

monopolising scarce cattle resources to force Africans into the

labour market.

(c) Most of the victims of world war belonged to young generations of working men. As a result, it reduced the workforce in Europe, thereby reducing household income. The role of women increased and led to demand for more equality of status. It made the feminist movement stronger. Women started working alongside men in every field. Women and youngsters became more independent and free with long-term effects.

 (d) The impact of the Great Depression in India was felt especially in the agricultural sector. It was evident that Indian economy was closely becoming integrated to global economy. India was a British colony and exported agricultural goods and imported manufactured goods. The fall in agricultural price led to reduction of farmers’ income and agricultural export. The government did not decrease their tax and so, many farmers and landlords became more indebted to moneylenders and corrupt officials. It led to a great rural unrest in India.

Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonization of the Americas.

The global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in

the colonization of the Americas because the native American

Indians were not immune to the diseases that the settlers and

colonizers brought with them. The Europeans were more or less

immune to small pox, but the native Americans, having been cut

off from the rest of the world for millions of years, had no

defence against it. These germs killed and wiped out whole

communities, paving the way for foreign domination. Weapons

and soldiers could be destroyed or captured, but diseases could

not be fought against.

Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.

Examples of the different types of global exchanges which took

place before the seventeenth century:

→ Textiles, spices and Chinese pottery were exchanged by

China, India and Southeast Asia in return for gold and silver from

Europe.

→ Gold and foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, tomatoes

and chillies were first exported from the Americas to Europe.

Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?

Political leaders differed sharply over the question of

separate electorates because of differences in opinion. While

those supporting the cause of minorities and the dalits believed

that only political empowerment would resolve their social

backwardness, others like Gandhiji thought that separate

electorates would further slow down the process of their

integration into society. Also, it was feared that the system of

separate electorates would gradually divide the country into

numerous fragments because every community or class would

then ask for separate representations

Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism.

The Salt March was an effective symbol of resistance

against colonialism because it was done in revolt against a

commodity- salt, used by the rich and the poor alike. The tax on

salt, and the government monopoly over its production was a

severely oppressive administrative move. The Salt March was

effective also because Gandhiji met a large number of

commoners during the march and he taught them the true

meaning of swaraj and non-violence. By peacefully defying a law

and making salt against government orders, Gandhiji set forth

an example to the whole nation of how the oppressor could be

confronted in a non-violent manner. This also led to the Civil

Disobedience Movement in 1930.

List all the different social groups which joined the Non Cooperation Movement of 1921. Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.

The different social groups that joined the NonCooperation Movement of 1921 

were the urban middle class comprising lawyers, teachers and headmasters, students,

peasants, tribals and workers.

→ The middle class joined the movement because the boycott

of foreign goods would make the sale of their textiles and

handlooms go up.

→ The peasants took part in the movement because they hoped

they would be saved from the oppressive landlords, high taxes

taken by the colonial government.

→ Plantation workers took part in the agitation hoping they

would get the right to move freely in and outside the plantations

and get land in their own villages.

Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter 1.

→ The image of Germania was the symbol of German nation

whereas; the image of Bharat Mata was the symbol of Indian

nation.

→ Both images inspired nationalists who worked very hard to

unify their respective countries and to attain a liberal nation.

→ The image of Bharat Mata is different from that of Germania

in the sense that former reflects the religious basis of its making.

→ The image of Bharat Mata painted by Abanindranath Tagore

is bestowed with learning, food, clothing and some ascetic

quality also. Another painting of Bharat Mata in which we find

Mata holding Trishul and standing beside a lion and an elephant

– symbols of power and authority. This image appears to be

more akin to the image of Germania where she holds a sword

and a shield.

Write a newspaper report on: (a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre (b) The Simon Commission

a) On 13th April 1919, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed

ground of Jallianwala Bagh – some to protest against the British

government’s repressive measures, others to attend the annual

Baishakhi Fair. These people were unaware of the imposition of

Marshal Law in the city. General Dyer, the Commander, blocked

the exit points from the Bagh and opened fire upon the innocent

citizens. Dyer’s intention was to produce a ‘moral effect’ and

terrorize satyagrahis. Hundreds of innocent people including

women and children were killed and wounded due to this

indiscriminate firing by the British soldiers, which ultimately led

to nation-wide outrage. Jallianwala Bagh incident was the most

brutal incident in the History of India.

b) The Simon Commission was constituted by the Tory

Government in Britain, under Sir John Simon. The objective of

the Commission was to look into the functioning of the

constitutional system in India and suggest some constitutional

changes. But nationalists in India opposed the Commission

because it had not a single Indian member. Therefore, when the

Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan “Go Back Simon”. All parties, including Congress and

the Muslim league, participated in the demonstrations.

What is meant by the idea Satyagraha?

Satyagraha was a novel method of mass agitation. The

idea of Satyagraha emphasized upon the power of truth and the

need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true

and if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was

not necessary to fight the oppressor.

Through non-violent methods a Satyagraha could appeal the

conscience of the oppressor by the power of truth, which was

bound to win.

Explain: (a) Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement. (b) How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India. (c) Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act. (d) Why Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.

(a) Colonisation affected people's freedom, and nationalist

sentiments surged during the process of struggle against

imperial domination. The sense of oppression and exploitation

became a common bond for people from different walks of life,

and this resulted in the growth of nationalist ideals. Thus,

growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to anti-colonial

movements.

(b) During the First World War, the British army conducted

forced recruitment from rural areas in India. To finance the

defence expenditure, high custom duties and income taxes were

imposed. Also, during 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in

many parts of India, thereby resulting in acute food shortages.

All this caused extensive anger and opposition against the British

colonial rule, and the national movement of India headed

towards a stronger, more definitive direction.

(c) The Rowlatt Act was passed hurriedly through the Imperial

Legislative Council despite opposition from Indian members. It

gave the government autocratic powers to repress political

activities besides allowing it to detain political prisoners without

a trial, for two years. The Indian were outraged by this act as it

was clearly undemocratic and oppressive, and hurt national

sentiments and dignity.

(d) Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation

Movement due to various incidents of violence perpetrated by

the masses, especially the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922 where

the people clashed with the police, setting a police-station on

fire. Gandhiji felt that the people were not yet ready for a mass

struggle, and that satyagrahis needed to be properly trained for

non-violent demonstrations.

What was the role of women in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam? Compare this with the role of women in the nationalist struggle in India.

Women played a crucial role in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam. 

Women who rebelled against social conventions were idealised and

rebel women of the past were likewise celebrated. Trieu Au was a

popular figure in nationalist tales. In the 1960s, women were

represented as brave soldiers and workers. They assisted in nursing

wounded soldiers, constructing underground tunnels and fighting the

enemy. Interestingly, between 1965 and 1975, 70-80% of the youth

working on the Ho Chi Minh trail were women.

Compared to this very direct and active participation of Vietnamese

women in the anti-imperial struggle, India women did not play a very

dynamic role in the nationalist struggle of India against Great Britain.

They followed Gandhian ideals of boycotting foreign goods and picketing

liquor shops, but mainstream politics was controlled by men; although

women like Sarojini Naidu, Kamla Nehru and Kasturba Gandhi were

keenly involved.

The US got involved in the war in Vietnam because it feared that a communist government would come to power in Vietnam after the National Liberation Front formed a coalition with the Ho Chi Minh government in the north, against Ngo Dinh Diem's regime. US policyplanners feared a spread of communism to other countries in the area. This involvement in the Vietnam war affected life within the US itself because of widespread public dissent. Only university graduates were exempt from compulsory service in the army and this caused even more anger amongst the minorities and working-class families.

a) From 1965 to 1972, the US-Vietnam War continued and caused losses

to both US and Vietnam.The Vietnamese people suffered human and property 

losses, yet they never stopped their struggle for freedom. Here it is important to

mention the role played by the porters in getting freedom and unity of

Vietnam. The porters set out without fear on the Ho Chi Minh Trail

which was a great expansive network of roads and footpaths. The heroic

porters carried as much as 25 kg to 70 kg of weight on their backs or

bicycles. They did not fear that they might fall over in the deep valleys.

They bravely walked on the narrow, dangerous roads that marked the

treacherous routes. They also did not feel afraid of being shot down by

aircraft guns. They put all their fears aside and walked on to maintain

the supply line. This fact showed that the porters were heroic and

patriotic.

b) The Vietnamese women played an important role in the US-Vietnam

War. They were both warriors and workers. As warriors and soldiers, the

Vietnamese women constructed six air strips, they neutralised

thousands of bombs and went on to shoot down fifteen planes. There

were 1.5 million Vietnamese women in the regular army, the militia, the

local forces and professional teams. The women workers were also

engaged as porters, nurses and construction workers.

Explain the causes of the US involvement in the war in Vietnam. What effect did this involvement have on life within the US itself?

The US got involved in the war in Vietnam because it feared that a

communist government would come to power in Vietnam after the

National Liberation Front formed a coalition with the Ho Chi Minh

government in the north, against Ngo Dinh Diem's regime. US policyplanners

feared a spread of communism to other countries in the area.

This involvement in the Vietnam war affected life within the US itself

because of widespread public dissent. Only university graduates were

exempt from compulsory service in the army and this caused even more

anger amongst the minorities and working-class families.

What was the role of religious groups in the development of anticolonial feelings in Vietnam?

Religion had always played a pivotal role in the lives of people in

Vietnam. Vietnam's religious beliefs were a mix of Buddhism,

Confucianism and local customs. Christianity looked down upon their

reverence for the supernatural. In 1868, the Scholars' Revolt protested 

against the tyrannical spread of Christianity, and though the movement

was defeated, it inspired others to follow suit. The Hoa Hoa movement

in 1939 drew upon popular religious ideas of the nineteenth century,

and its leader Huynh Phu So was a famous entity. These groups were not

in tandem with political parties which tended to look down upon their

activities with discomfort. Nevertheless, religious movements were

successful in arousing anti-imperialist tendencies in the Vietnamese

people.

With reference to what you have read in this chapter, discuss the influence of China on Vietnam's culture and life.

The influence of China on Vietnam's culture and life was multifarious

before the French colonized Vietnam. Even when the latter gained

independence in 1945, the rulers maintained the use of Chinese

governance systems and culture. The elites were vastly influenced by

Chinese culture and life, as has been elucidated in Phan Boi Chau's book

"The History of the Loss of Vietnam". Chinese language and

Confucianism were followed by the upper classes in Vietnam. In 1911,

when the Chinese Republic was set up, Vietnamese students followed

suit in organizing the Association for the Restoration of Vietnam.

Vietnamese men also kept their hair long - a Chinese tradition.

What was Phan Chu Trinh’s objective for Vietnam? How were his ideas different from those of Phan Boi Chau?

Phan Chu Trinh's objective for Vietnam was to make it a democratic

republic, along the western ideals of liberty. He accused the French of

not following their own national ideals, and demanded for the setting up

of legal and educational institutions alongside the development of

agriculture and industries.

Unlike Phan Boi Chau, Phan Chu Trinh was extremely opposed to the monarchy. Hence, their ideas had at their roots this fundamental

difference.

Describe the ideas behind the Tonkin Free School. To what extent is it a typical example of colonial ideas in Vietnam?

Like other colonizers, the French also thought that they were on a

civilizing mission. Thus the Tonkin Free School was opened to give

Western education. The school taught science, hygiene and French,

other than the common subjects. For these three subjects the students

had to attend evening classes and also pay separately. The students

were not only made to attend these classes but they were asked to

sport modern looks too. A typical example of this was that Vietnamese

were asked to cut off their long hair and adopt a short hair cut which

was absolutely against their culture.

Explain the following: (a) Only one-third of the students in Vietnam would pass the school leaving examinations. (b) The French began building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta. (c) The government made the Saigon Native Girls School take back the students it had expelled. (d) Rats were most common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi.

(a) Only one-third of the students in Vietnam would pass the school leaving examinations because the French colonial administration followed a deliberate policy of failing students in their final year examinations so that they could not qualify for better-paid jobs. Only the wealthy Vietnamese could afford enrollment in these expensive schools, and to add to that, very few would pass the school-leaving examinations.

 (b) The French began building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta for increased cultivation. This was done under a garb to "civilize" Vietnam on a European model, but it was actually an economic idea meant to increase rice production and subsequent export of rice to the international market.

 (c) When the French principal of the Saigon Native Girls School expelled the students protesting another student's expulsion, there was widespread remonstration. Considering the gravity of the situation, the government decided to control the intensity of the protests by providing an outlet-making the school take back the students.

 (d) Rats were most common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi because the modern and apparently hygienic sewage system provided ideal breeding grounds for rodents apart from being a good transport system as well, for the rats. Sewage from the old city was drained out into the river or overflowed in the streets during heavy rains. The large sewers now became a protected breeding and living space for rats. Hanoi, despite its "modernity", became the chief cause of the plague in 1903.

Write a note on: (a) What was meant by the 'civilizing mission' of the colonizers (b) Huynh Phu So

(a) What was meant by the 'civilizing mission' of the colonizers: The

European countries acquired colonies in the East Asian countries to

exploit their natural resources. Like other European countries the French

also propagated that it was their mission to bring the benefits of

civilization to backward people. They posed that they were driven by the

idea of the civilizing mission. Like the British in India, the French claimed

they were bringing modern civilization to Vietnam. They considered that

it was their duty to bring modern ideas into their colonies even at the

cost of destroying the local culture, beliefs, etc.

(b) Huynh Phu So: Huynh Phu So was the founder of a nationalist

movement called Hoa Hao. He performed miracles and helped the poor.

His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal. He also

opposed the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and

opium. The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh

Phu So. They declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him

in a mental asylum. But the doctor, who had to prove him mad, became

his follower. Finally, he was exiled to Laos and many of his followers

were sent to concentration camps.

Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans because of the

spread of ideas of romantic nationalism as also the

disintegration of the Ottoman Empire that had previously ruled

over this area. The different Slavic communities in the Balkans

began to strive for independent rule. They were jealous of each

other and every state wanted more territory, even at the

expense of others. Also, the hold of imperial power over the

Balkans made the situation worse. Russia, Germany, England,

Austro-Hungary all wanted more control over this area. These

conflicts ultimately led to the First World War in 1914.

How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

The history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe

because:

→ In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result

of a sudden upheaval or revolution.

→ The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British

Isles were ethnic ones - such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.

→ The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland

resulted in the formation of the 'United Kingdom of Great 

Britain' meant that England was able to impose its influence on

Scotland. Scotland's distinctive culture and political institutions

were systematically suppressed.

→ The Scottish highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic

language or wear their national dress and large numbers were

forcibly driven out of their homeland.

→ The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish

their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts

against British dominance were suppressed. Ireland was forcibly

incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

→ The symbols of the new Britain - the British flag, the national

anthem, the English language were actively promoted and the

older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this

union.

Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

The development of the German and Italian nation states in the

nineteenth century:

→ Political fragmentation: Till the middle of the nineteenth

century, the present-day nations of Germany and Italy were

fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms ruled by

different princely houses.

→ Revolutionary uprisings: Nineteenth-century Europe was

characterized by both popular uprisings of the masses and

revolutions led by the educated, liberal middle classes. The

middle classes belonging to the different German regions came

together to form an all-German National Assembly in 1848.

However, on facing opposition from the aristocracy and military,

and on losing its mass support base, it was forced to disband.

In the Italian region, during the 1830s, revolutionaries like

Giuseppe Mazzini sought to establish a unitary Italian Republic.

However, the revolutionary uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed to

unite Italy.

→ Unification with the help of the army: After the failure of the 

revolutions, the process of German and Italian unification was

continued by the aristocracy and the army. Germany was united

by the Prussian chief minister Otto von Bismarck with the help

of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. The German empire was

proclaimed in 1871.

The Italian state of Sardinia-Piedmont played a role similar to

that played by Prussia. Count Camillo de Cavour (the Chief

Minister) led the movement to unite the separate states of

nineteenth-century Italy with the help of the army and an

alliance with France. The regions annexed by Giuseppe Garibaldi

and his Red Shirts joined with the northern regions to form a

united Italy. The italian nation was proclaimed in 1861. The

papal states joined in 1870.

Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Three examples to show the contribution of culture to the

growth of nationalism in Europe were:

→ Romanticism was a European cultural movement aimed at

developing national unity by creating a sense of shared heritage

and common history. The Romantic artists' emphasis on

emotions, intuition and mystical feelings gave shape and

expression to nationalist sentiments. The strength of art in

promoting nationalism is well exemplified in the role played by

European poets and artists in mobilising public opinion to

support the Greeks in their struggle to establish their national

identity.

→ Folk songs, dances and poetry contributed to popularising the

spirit of nationalism and patriotic fervour in Europe. Collecting

and recording the different forms of folk culture was important

for building a national consciousness. Being a part of the lives of

the common people, folk culture enabled nationalists to carry

the message of nationalism to a large and diverse audience. The

Polish composer Karol Kurpinski celebrated and popularized the

Polish nationalist struggle through his operas and music, turning

folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist

symbols. 

→ Language also played a distinctive role in developing

nationalist feelings in Europe. An example of this is how during

Russian occupation, the use of Polish came to be seen as a

symbol of struggle against Russian dominance. During this

period, Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian

language was imposed everywhere. Following the defeat of an

armed rebellion against Russian rule in 1831, many members of

the clergy in Poland began using language as a weapon of

national resistance. They did so by refusing to preach in Russian,

and by using Polish for Church gatherings and religious

instruction. The emphasis on the use of vernacular language, the

language of the masses, helped spread the message of national

unity.

Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

The 1848 revolution of the liberals refers to the various national

movements pioneered by educated middle classes alongside the

revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and

workers in Europe. While in countries like France, food

shortages and widespread unemployment during 1848 led to

popular uprisings, in other parts of Europe (such as Germany,

Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire), men and

women of the liberal middle classes came together to voice

their demands for the creation of nation-states based on

parliamentary principles.The political, social and economic ideas

supported by the liberals were:

→ Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national

unification, nation-state with a written constitution and

parliamentary administration.

→ Socially, They wanted to rid society of its class-based

partialities and birth rights. Serfdom and bonded labour had to

be abolished.

→ Economically they demanded freedom of markets and right

to property. Abolition of state imposed restrictions on the

movements of goods and capital.

What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Napoleon introduced following changes to make the

administrative system more efficient in the areas ruled by him:

→ He established civil code in 1804 also known as the

Napoleonic Code. It did away with all privileges based on birth. It

established equality before law and secured the right to

property.

→ He simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal

system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

→ In towns too, guild systems were removed. Transport and

communication systems were improved.

→ Peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers enjoyed the

new found freedom.

Briefly trace the process of German unification.

In the 1800s, nationalist feelings were strong in the hearts of the

middle-class Germans. They united in 1848 to create a nation state out of the

numerous German States. But the monarchy

and the military got together to repress them and they gained

support from the landowners of Prussia (the Junkers) too.

Prussia soon became the leader of German unification

movement. Its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck was the

architect of the process with support from Prussian army and

Prussian bureaucracy. The unification process was completed

after Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark and France over

seven years time. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I,

was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at

Versailles.

Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Marianne and Germania were respective female allegories for

the French and the German nation. They stood as personifications of ideals like 'liberty'

and 'the republic'. The importance of the way in which they were portrayed lay in the

fact that the public could identify with their symbolic meaning,

and this would instil a sense of national unity in them.

What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

The French revolutionaries took many important steps

to create a sense of collective identity among the French people

which were:

→ Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen)

emphasizing the notion of a united community enjoying equal

rights under a constitution.

→ A new French flag, a tricolour replaced the royal standard.

→ The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and

was elected by a group of active citizens.

→ New hymns, oaths and martyrs commemorated in the name

of the nation.

→ A central administrative system made uniform laws for the

entire nation.

→ Discouraging regional dialects and promoting French as a

common language of the nation.

Write a Note on: (a) Giuseppe Mazzini. (b) Count Camilo de Cavour. (c) The Greek War of Independence. (d) The Frankfurt Parliament. (e) The Greek War of Independence

a) Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian

revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807. He was a member of the

secret society of the Carbonari. At the age of 24, he was sent

into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He

founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in

Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne, whose members were

like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the

German States.

b) Count Camilo de Cavour: Cavour was chief misnister

of Sardinia-Piedmont state who led the movement to unify the

regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.

Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian

elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian. He

engineered a careful diplomatic alliance with France, which

helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat the Austrian forces in 1859,

and thereby free the northern part of Italy from the Austrian

Habsburgs.

c) The Greek War of Independence: This was a successful war of

independence waged by Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1829 against the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks were

supported by the West European countries, while poets and

artists hailed Greece as the cradle of European civilization.

Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece

as an independent nation.

d) The Frankfurt Parliament: It was an all-German National

Assembly formed by the middle-class professionals,

businessmen and prosperous artisans belonging to the different

German regions. It was convened on 18 May, 1848 in the

Church of St. Paul, in the city of Frankfurt. This assembly drafted

a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy

subject to a parliament. However, it faced opposition from the

aristocracy and military. Also, as it was dominated by the middle

classes, it lost its mass support base. In the end, it was forced to

disband on 31 May, 1849

e) The role of women in nationalist struggles: The issue of

extending political rights to women was a controversial one

within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women

had participated actively over the years. Women had formed

their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken

part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they

were denied suffrage during the election of the Assembly. When

the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul,

women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’

gallery.

Why did Mahatma Gandhi's dream of clothing the nation in khadi appeal only to some sections of Indians?

Mahatma Gandhi's dream of clothing the nation in khadi

appealed only to some sections of Indians because of different

reasons. For the socially deprived, emancipation opened new

doors - they wanted to experiment with Western dress styles

now that dress restrictions did not hamper with their wishes

anymore. This adoption of Western clothing was symbolic of

new-found self and public respect for them. Others found khadi

expensive to buy, and women in south India complained that

they could not afford nine yards of khadi (standard length of the

sari in the south).

Winston Churchill described Mahatma Gandhi as a 'seditious Middle Temple Lawyer' now 'posing as a half naked fakir'. What provoked such a comment and what does it tell you about the symbolic strength of Mahatma Gandhi's dress?

Mahatma Gandhi went to the Viceroy’s house clad in a dhoti.

This provoked such a comment. This signified the symbolic strength of his dress.

 It showed the pride he had for his nation and its people, especially the peasants. It also signified how he identified with his people and the strength he derived

from them.

Suggest reasons why women in nineteenth century India were obliged to continue wearing traditional Indian dress even when men switched over to the more convenient Western clothing. What does this show about the position of women in society?

Women in the 19th century India were obliged to continue

wearing traditional Indian dress even when men switched over

to more convenient western clothes. This clearly shows that

women during that time were accorded a lower status than men

in society. They were not allowed to be aware of what was going

on outside the house and were confined within the four walls of

their homes. Modernity and change were not for them.

In 1805, a British official, Benjamin Heyne, listed the manufactures of Bangalore which included the following: Women's cloth of different musters and names Coarse chintz, Muslins Silk, cloths Of this list, which kind of cloth would have definitely fallen out of use in the early 1900s and why?

Muslin would have fallen out of use as machine cloth had

flooded the Indian markets and was cheaper. Muslin was

expensive and hence was not used. In fact, the Industrial Revolution brought about a complete change in which muslin

cloth had no place.

Give any two examples of the ways in which European dress codes were different from Indian dress codes.

Two examples of the ways in which European dress codes were

different from Indian dress codes:

→ In Europe, dress codes were enacted on a socio-economic bias, while in India, these

norms were along the lines of caste.

→ While the lower classes in Europe were barred from wearing

specific materials, the lower castes in India were barred from

wearing particular clothes; for example, the Shanar women, who

were disallowed from covering their upper bodies like the higher

caste women.

What were the sumptuary laws in France?

From 1294 to the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the

people of France were expected to strictly follow the sumptuary

laws. These rules tried to regulate the lifestyles of the lower

classes by regulating the amount and type of clothes they

bought. The laws tried to control:

→ the behaviour of those considered socially inferior

→ preventing them from wearing certain clothes→ consuming certain foods and beverages

→ hunting game in certain areas.

Explain the reasons for the changes in clothing patterns and materials in the eighteenth century.

After the 18th century, the colonization of most of the world by

Europe, the spread of democratic ideals and the growth of an

industrial society completely changed the ways in which people

thought about dress. People could use styles and materials that

were drawn from other cultures and locations. Western dress

styles for men were adopted worldwide.

How have advances in technology, especially television technology, affected the development of contemporary cricket?

Advances in technology, especially television technology, have

affected the development of contemporary cricket by making it

marketable game:

→ Cricket boards sold television rights to

television companies and reaped profits.

→ Television channels sold television spots to companies. They

aired their commercials and advertised their commodities to a

large number of audience. They made huge profits.

→ Continuous television coverage made cricketers

celebrities.They became rich. They were paid by cricket boards

and also by companies whose commercials they endorsed.

→ Cricket audience expanded. Cricket was taken to the smaller

towns. People could watch and learn by imitating their heroes.

→ Coloured uniforms, protective equipments, field regulations,

and day-night, limited-overs matches have all helped this pre-industrial, rural game to adapt to the changing modern world.

→ Balance of power shifted to South Asia as most viewership was from here. ICC headquarters shifted from London to tax free Dubai.

Give brief explanations for the following: (i) The Parsis were the first Indian community to set up a cricket club in India. (ii) Mahatma Gandhi condemned the Pentangular tournament. (iii) The name of the ICC was changed from the Imperial Cricket Conference to theInternational Cricket Conference. (iv) The shift of the ICC headquarters from London to Dubai.

(i) The Parsis were a small trading community in close contact

with the British, and hence, they were the first ones to

westernize. During this process of westernization, they founded

the first Indian cricket club, in Bombay, in 1848, called the

Oriental Cricket Club.

(ii) Mahatma Gandhi condemned the Pentangular tournament

as he felt that it was a divisive competition that went against the

need of the hour. At a time when the nationalists were trying to

unite India’s diverse population, the Pentangular tournament

divided them on communal lines and the colonial government

encouraged these divisions.

(iii) The name was changed because of decolonization. This was

a process by which the British influence in many areas, one of

them sports, declined. Cricket was no longer the monopoly of

the imperial powers. Cricket was becoming international. In

time, it came to be accepted that the laws of cricket could not

continue to be framed for British or Australian conditions of play

and they became part of the technique of all bowlers,

everywhere in the world.

(iv) The shift of the ICC headquarters from London to Dubai happened on account of India's location in South Asia. Since

India has the largest viewership and market for cricket, the

balance of power in cricket has shifted from the colonial domain

to the decolonized domain. The shifting of headquarters

symbolized and formally marked the end of English or

imperialist domination over the game.